He helped to found the Democratic-Republican Party; served President Jefferson as Secreatary of State; and became the fourth US President (1809-17). During his presidency war broke out between America and Great Britain.

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Giuseppe Mazzini
1805-72
Italian Patriot




Founder of the Young Italy movement and of a journal of that name in 1831.

Following a failed invasion of Savoy he went into exile in London, returning to Italy in 1848. He was the main advocate of an independent Italian Republic and was disappointed by the emergence of an Italian kingdom in 1861.

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Mehmed IV
1642-93
Ottoman Sultan




Under Mehemmed IV the ministerial family of Koprulu emerged as a dominant force in the empire.

His reign was occupied by endless warfare in the Mediterranean; and on the northern frontiers. He invaded Transylvania, and unsucessfully besieged Vienna in 1683.

The subsequent loss of Hungary led to his deposition in 1687 and detention until his death.

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Menelik II
1844-1913
Emperor of Ethiopia



He became emperor in 1889, and in 1896 defeated an Italian invasion to ensure his country's independence. He greatly expanded his territory by conquering Galla lands in the south-west and Ogaden in the east.

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Mohammed Ali
1769-1849
Ruler of Egypt



Born in Macedonia he was appointed Ottoman viceroy in Egypt, 1805.

He soon challenged the power of the sultan and invaded Syria, which he had to give up after European intervention. In 1841 he was appointed hereditary ruler of Egypt and Sudan and is considered the founder of modern Egypt.

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James Monroe
1758-1831
US President




He negotiated the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. During his presidency (1817-25) he drew up the Monroe Doctrine, which demanded the exclusion of foreign influence from the Western Hemisphere.

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Benito Mussolini
1883-1945 Italian Dictator



Expelled in 1914 from the Socialist party he organized in 1919 the Fascist party.

In 1922 he organized his famous March on Rome and took over the government. He took the title 'Il Duce' (the leader), abolished democracy, improved the railway system, and signed an agreement with the Vatican.

Externally he invaded Ethiopia (1935), supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War and joined Hitler in World War II.
In Africa, Greece, and finally in Italy itself, Mussolini's armies met defeat. His own Fascist Grand Council overthrew and imprisoned him in 1943. Rescued by German troops he headed a short-lived puppet government, but was captured andf shot by partisans in 1945.

What is Fascism

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